This manual is the first book you should read when you open the Apple IIe. All other manuals for the Apple IIe assume that you have read this book.
This manual is arranged so you can find the information you want quickly and easily, without having to read things you aren't interested in just yet. Here is an overview of what this manual contains.
Chapter 1, "Assembling the System," explains how to unpack, set up, and connect your computer to a disk drive and either a television set or a video monitor. This is the basic Apple IIe system, and with it you can do the exercises in Chapters 2 and 4. Chapter 1 also explains how to connect an optional 80-column text card and a second disk drive.
[editor's note: get a copy of Raised Dot Computing's interface guide to find out how to interface voice and braille devices]
Chapter 2, "Getting Acquainted," presents a simplified description of how the system works, gives a few pointers on system and disk care, and explains how to use the disk APPLE PRESENTS...APPLE. This chapter also contains a keyboard reference section.
Chapter 3, "How It Works," uses diagrams to illustrate a few of the fundamental concepts of the Apple IIe system.
Chapter 4, "Using an Operating System," guides you through some practice exercises with the operating system (DOS) that comes with the Disk II drive.
Chapter 5, "Getting Down to Business and Pleasure," outlines the kinds of ready-made programs available to use with your Apple IIe computer.
Chapter 6, "Programming: the Ultimate Computer Skill," introduces a few of the dozens of programming languages you can use with the Apple IIe computer.
Chapter 7, "Adding More Pieces to the System," is a supplement to Chapter 1. If you have purchased additional equipment, or realize you need more equipment to accomplish some goal, use Chapter 7 as a guide.
Chapter 8, "Help," tells you what you can do to identify and correct problems with your system, lists Apple IIe manuals available from Apple Computer, Inc., and lists some of the books and magazines you can consult for further information.
The following chart shows which chapters are recommended for various kinds of readers. You may fall into more than one of the categories (for example, a first-time user who set up his own system).
[chart showing various classifications of readers and what chapters they should read. It goes basically as follows: The person who sets up the system, 1 and 7. The first time user who wants ready made programs, 2,3,4, and 7. The experienced Apple computer user, 2,3,4,5, and 6. The programmer, 2,4,6, and 8. The business person, 2, 5, and 8.]
This chapter examines some of the Apple IIe's features and explains how to unpack your computer and connect the external equipment (peripheral devices) you will need to do the exercises in Chapters 2 and 4. In particular, you need at least one Disk II drive and a TV set or video monitor.
This chapter also describes how to install two optional devices: a second disk drive and an 80-column text card
Chapter 7 describes how to connect other equipment to the Apple IIe.
Before you begin, clear a large table or desktop and have a medium screwdriver and pair of pliers handy.
As you read this chapter, you will follow the suggested procedure for unpacking and assembling the system, which is:
Unpack the computer and its accessories box. Check the packing list to make sure you have everything you're supposed to have. Examine the computer, especially the areas for connecting devices. Then unpack, inventory, and connect any additional equipment.
If you have equipment not described in this chapter, and you want to install it right away, read the pertinent sections of Chapter 7.
This chapter is just an overview of how to unpack and
set up the system. Rely on the documents that came with the equipment for
final details. Put the computer carton on the floor or on a steady
chair. Remove and discard the staples from the top flaps of the carton.
Remove the accessories box and set it aside.
Work your hands between the packing foam and the sides
of the computer in its plastic bag. Pushing the foam aside with the backs
of your hands, pull the computer out and set it on the table with the
keyboard facing you. Slide the Apple IIe out of its plastic bag.
Lay the contents of the accessories box on the table.
Then gather all packing materials for storage and possible later use (for
example, if you move).
Be sure to keep all documents that come in the
accessories box. Some may be addenda (information to add to manuals) or
errata (corrections) that you may need.
Check the items against the packing list that came in
the accessories box. Use the photograph to help identify the important
parts. [photograph showing Apple IIe computer, user's manual, power cord,
monitor cord, disk, and a small bag of metal pieces] If anything is
missing, contact your dealer. If the warranty card hasn't been filled out, complete
the card now and mail it in. The warranty card registers you as an Apple
computer owner so that the company can notify you of important changes to
its products. The serial number is on the bottom of the computer.
Removing the Apple IIe Cover
Before you can connect equipment that goes inside the
Apple IIe, you must remove the cover. With both hands, grasp the tabs that
project backward from the computer cover. Pull up firmly until the corner
fasteners pop. Slide the cover back, away from the keyboard, until you can
lift it up and off. Set the cover aside. Compare what you see with the items in the photograph.
[photograph of the inside of the Apple IIe with parts
labeled to the side]
The 6502 processor. This is the part of the Apple IIe
that does the actual computing.
The main memory (called random-access memory or RAM).
This is where the computer stores what the processor is working on.
The power supply case. This houses the computer's
power supply. Before touching anything else inside the Apple, touch the
power supply case. This discharges any static electricity you may have on
your clothes or body.
The internal power-on light. Always make sure this
light is off before connecting or disconnecting anything inside the
computer's case.
The auxiliary slot. This is the connector slot for an
80-column text card or other special cards designed for this 60-pin slot.
The expansion slots. These slots, numbered from 1 to 7
(look and see), are for peripheral cards, which make it possible to
connect a wide variety of additional equipment to the Apple IIe. Every
card has components attached on one side and solder lines and connections
on the other. Always install cards with their components facing away from
the power supply.
The radio-frequency modulator connector. If you use a
television set with the Apple IIe, you must purchase and attach a
radio-frequency (RF) modulator to this connector, and the television set
to the modulator. An RF modulator makes it possible for a TV set to tune
in the signals coming from the computer. Read the instructions that came
with the modulator to see which channel to use.
The GAME I/O connector. Some products that use a
16-pin connector can be attached here.
The keyboard input connector, with the built-in
keyboard already attached.
The speaker and its connector. The Apple IIe uses this
to make beeps and musical tones. A Look at the Back
Turn the Apple IIe around so the keyboard faces away
from you. On the right of the back panel is the power switch. Make sure
this switch is off, and that it stays in the off position until you have
finished setting up your system, to avoid damaging the Apple's circuitry.
Plug one end of the power cord into the socket next to
the power switch, and plug the other end into a three-hole, grounded power
outlet.
This product is equipped with a three-prong power
cord. As a safety feature, the plug is designed to fit only into a
polarized, grounded three-hole outlet. If you don't have such an outlet,
have a licensed electrician install one (and a grounding conductor, if
necessary) where you will use the computer. Do not defeat the purpose of
the grounding-type plug.
[2 photos: hand near power switch, and hand plugging
in power cord]
While you are looking at the back panel of the
computer, notice:
The video output jack. This is where the picture
signals for a video monitor come out.
The cassette output jack. If you use an audio cassette
recorder for storing programs, you will use this socket to connect the
cable that carries information out of the Apple to the cassette recorder
(Chapter 7).
The cassette input jack. This socket connects the
cable that brings information into the Apple from the cassette recorder
(Chapter 7). The 9-pin hand control connector. This is for
connection of hand controls (Chapter 7).
Numbered rectangular openings. When you connect the
Apple IIe to external (peripheral) devices through an interface card, the
card's connector is attached to the appropriate cutout. Openings 1 through
4 are for 19-pin connectors; 5, 6, 8 and 9 are for 9-pin connectors; and
7, 10, 11 and 12 are for 25-pin connectors.
When you have finished examining the back panel, turn
the computer back around so the keyboard is facing you.
[photo of back panel with labels and arrows for
connectors, video output, cassette output, cassette input, hand control
jacks, and power switch] Connecting Cards Inside the Computer
Now that you have had a good look at the computer,
it's time to install your cards and peripheral devices. The standard
procedure for doing this follows. The 80-column text card is shown as an
example:
Make sure the power switch is off and the computer is
plugged in.
Double check the power: make sure the internal
power-on light is off.
Pick up the card by its edges. Handle the card
carefully, the way you would handle an expensive phonograph record.
If the card has switches, set them according to the
instructions that came with the card.
If the card will be connected to a peripheral device,
follow the cable installation instructions that came with the card and the
device.
Touch the power supply case to discharge any static
electricity that may be on you or your clothes.
Hold the card over the desired slot, with the
component side away from the power supply case and any attached cables out
of the way of the slot. $ Gently work the comb-like fingers into the slot
until the card is firmly in place. Be careful not to bend the card.
If the card has no cable, installation is complete.
Select the lowest-numbered opening of the correct size
(for 9, 19 or 25 pins) on the back panel, near the slot where you will
install the card. From the inside, push on the tab of the opening's
plastic insert to pop it out.
Secure the cable or connector to the opening using an
appropriate size nut plate and a pair of jack screws.
If the device cable is a separate piece of equipment,
make sure it is attached to both the back panel and the device.
If you have problems, cunsult the directions that came
with the equipment. If it looks as though you can't attach the connector
to the opening, consult your dealer. Another Example: Connecting a Disk Drive
The type of cable arrangement for Disk II drives
varies. For details, rely on the instructions that came with the drive.
Select back panel opening number 1 for the first
drive, opening number 2 for the second drive (up to 4 drives). (Opening
number 4 is shown in the photographs for visual clarity.) Pop out the
opening's plastic insert.
Feed the free end of the disk drive cable through the
opening from tha back.
Find one of the U-shaped clamps and two jack screws.
Bend the metal flap away from the cable's connector
and hold it flat against the cable with your thumb.
Spread the U-shaped clamp open slightly. Slide it over
the cable and flap. The flat side of the clamp should be in contact with
the cable, and the raised side of the clamp should be in contact with the
flap. [2 photos: finger pressing on tab of plastic insert in opening 4,
hands sliding clamp over cable flap] Feed the cable back through the back panel opening
until you can fit the raised side of the clamp in the opening.
Hold the clamp against the opening with one hand.
Reach behind the computer with the other hand and install the jack screws
through the opening into the nuts on the clamp. Tighten the screws with
the small wrench.
Attach the cable from the first drive to the DRIVE 1
pins on the disk controller card. Affix the drive 1 label to the first
disk drive. Do the same for drive 2.
Now install the disk controller card in slot 6. (For
three or four drives, install the second disk controller card in slot 4.)
[3 photos: thumb holding clamp against opening 4 from
inside; tightening jack screw with tiny wrench; controller card installed
in slot 6]
If you have other equipment that you want to install
right now, before closing the computer cover, follow the general
procedures given in this manual. For more information, read Chapter 7 of
this manual and consult the documentation that came with the equipment. Be
sure to install cards in their recommended slots.
Cards designed ofr use with an Apple II or II-Plus may
not work with the Apple IIe, especially if they had attachments to other
parts of the main circuit board. If you have any doubts about whether a
given card can be installed in the Apple IIe, consult your Apple
dealer. Connecting a Monitor
A video monitor is like a TV set, except that it
receives picture signals directly through a cable, instead of through an
antenna and tuner. If you use an 80-column text card, a black-and-white
monitor is recommended because the numbers and letters are much easier to
read.
Attaching a monitor to the Apple IIe is a simple
procedure:
Connect the video cable (which was in the accessories
box) from the video output jack on the Apple IIe to the video input jack
on the back of the monitor.
If you need to use an adapter, be sure you align the
points on the adapter with the grooves on the monitor connector before
tightening.
Connecting a Television Set
If you are attaching a color or black-and-white
television set to the Apple IIe, you need to connect it through a
radio-frequency (RF) modulator, which you can purchase from your Apple
dealer. To install your RF modulator, follow the instructions provided
with it.
BY THE WAY: The modulator takes the signals from the
computer and modifies them so the TV set can tune them in. It does not
make a black-and-white TV produce color pictures or make 80 column text
more legible on the screen, even if you have an 80-column text card. These
are the television's limitations, not the computer's.
Two notes on installing modulators:
Make sure the TV and computer are off before
proceeding. Be sure the modulator is connected to the correct antenna
screws on the back of your TV and that the TV set is tuned to the station
specified in the modulator's installation instructions. Closing the Computer Cover
Now that you have attached the video monitor or TV set
to the computer, close the Apple IIe cover:
Place the cover on the computer a little bit back from
its closed position.
Slide the cover toward the keyboard until the lip of
the cover is part way in the case.
Push down on the back corners until the fasteners pop
shut on both sides.
Here is a quick summary of the necessary installation
steps.
Unpack the computer and its accessories. Check the
items against the packing list. Examine the inside and back panel of the
computer. Install all interface cards and their internal cables. Install
all peripheral devices; connect their cables to the computer back panel.
Connect either a TV set with an RF modulator, or a video monitor, as a
display device.
If you have performed all these steps, your Apple IIe
system is ready to go!
Radio and Television Interference
The equipment described in this manual generates and
uses radio-frequency energy. If it is not installed and used properly,
that is, in strict accordance with our instructions, it may cause
interference with radio and television reception.
This equipment hs been tested and complies with the
limits for a Class B computing device in accordnce with the specifications
in SubpartJ, Part 15, of FCC rules. These rules are designed to provide
reasonable protection against such interference in a residential
installation. However, there is no guarantee that the interfence will not
occur in a particular installation, especilly if you use a "rabbit ear"
television antenna. (A "rabbit ear" antenna is the telescoping-rod type
usuallycontained on TV receivers.) You can determine whether your computer is causing
interference by turning it off. If the interference stops, it was probably
caused by the computer or its peripheral devices. To further isolate the
problem:
Disconnect the peripheral devices and their
input/output cables one at a time. If the interference stops, it is cused
by either the peripheral device or its I/O cable.
These devices usually require shielded I/O cables. For
Apple peripheral devices, you can obtain the proper shielded cable from
your dealer. For non-Apple peripherl devices, contact the manufacturer or
dealer for assistance.
If you computer does causee interfence to rdio or
television reception, you can try to correct the interference by using one
or more of the following measures:
Turn the TV or radio antenna until the interference
stops.
Move the computer to one side or the other of the TV
or radio.
Move the computer farther away from the TV or radio.
Plug the computer into an outlet that is on a
different circuit than the TV or radio. (That is, make certain the
computer and the radio or television set are on circuits controlled by
different circuit breakers or fuses.)
Consider installing a rooftop television antenna with
coxial cable led-in between the antenna and TV.
If necessary, you should consult you dealer or an
experienced radio/television technician for additional suggestions. You
may find helpful the following booklet, prepared by the Federal
Communications Commission:
"How to Identify and Resolve Radio-TV Interference
Problems"
This booklet is vailable from the U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, stock number 004-000-00345-4.
Now that your Apple IIe system is set up, it's time to
get acquainted with it. This chapter explains briefly what the basic
system parts do and how to take care of them. If you have a Disk II drive,
you can start up the disk APPLE PRESENTS...APPLE, which shows you how easy
it is to use the Apple computer system.
This chapter also contains a reference section on the
features of the Apple IIe keyboard.
Basic Parts of the System
There are seven basic hardware components to the Apple
IIe system. Your system may have more components, but the most important
parts are:
The 6502 processor. The processor carries out
sequences of instructions (called programs) stored in an area of the
computer's main memory.
Main memory. This is where the Apple IIe stores
programs when it is running them. The portion of main memory not occupied
by currently running programs is available for storing information entered
at the keyboard or other information the program is working on.
The built-in keyboard. This is your most important
means of sending information to the computer. You can type text
(characters you can see) or control characters (commands).
The built-in speaker. The computer uses the speaker
for sound effects: for example, a beep to indicate a successful startup or
an unrecognized command. The speaker can also produce musical tones.
All four of these parts are housed in the Apple IIe
case. Three other basic parts complete the system: A display device. This is the computer's means of
conveying information to you, either in words and numbers (text) or in
pictures (graphics).
A disk drive. A disk drive reads and writes
information on a magnetic disk for repeated use, much the way a tape
recorder plays back and records music.
When you record information on a disk, you tell the
computer to write or save it; when you transfer information from the disk
into the Apple IIe's main memory, you tell the computer to read or load
it.
Whenever you turn off the computer, the information in
main memory is lost. But what you have saved on a disk is still available
to load back into main memory after you turn the computer on again. Flexible disks (often called "floppy" disks). These
are to a disk drive what tapes are to a tape recorder. Some disks have
programs or other information already recorded on them (like prerecorded
tapes). Other disks are completely blank.
With your disk drive you received a program that can
prepare blank disks and write information on them for you. Chapter 4 shows
you how to use this program.
Taking Care of the System
Install your system in a place away from direct
sunlight or sources of intense heat (radiator, fireplace) or cold. Make
sure no moisture (from rain, snow, spilled drinks) gets on the computer or
attached devices. Connect the system and attached devices to the same
grounded three-wire outlet. Do not use a circuit that is already loaded
down with large appliances, such as an iron or electric heater. Do not
block the free circulation of air around and into the vent holes along the
sides of the computer case. Avoid letting excessive dust, dirt or
cigarette ash fall on or into the computer.
Taking Care of Disks
Handle the disk by its jacket and label. Never touch
the disk itself. To write on a label already attached to a disk jacket,
use a felt-tip pen. Do not press hard. It is better to write on the label
before attaching it to the disk. Never write on an attached label with a
pencil or ball-point pen: this may dent the recording surface, rendering
the disk unusable. Also, do not use an eraser on the label. Eraser dust is
abrasive and can damage the disk. Store disks upright in their envelopes.
Do not bend or attach paper clips to disks. Store disks away from direct
sunlight, moisture, or extremes of heat and cold. Keep disks away from
magnets or electrical devices, especially telephones, television sets, and
large motors.
It is OK to put disks temporarily on the computer or
disk drive.
This manual comes with a disk called APPLE
PRESENTS...APPLE. The program on this disk demonstrates features of the
Apple IIe keyboard and some of the sights and sounds you can expect to
experience while using the Apple IIe. Using this disk is an easy and
enjoyable way of getting to know the Apple IIe computer.
You can select parts of the presentation in any order
you wish by indicating your choice from the menu the program displays on
the screen. Program menus, like restaurant menus, show what is available
so you can choose what you want.
Before you use the disk, you should know about the
cursor. The computer displays a cursor to indicate that it has finished a
task and is ready for your next message. The cursor also shows you where
what you type will appear on the screen. The cursor comes in many forms: a
small box that blinks on and off, one that remains on; a wide box; an
underscore character; a tiny checkerboard; and so on. These differences
needn't concern you now.
To use the APPLE PRESENTS...APPLE disk, follow the
general instructions given in the next two sections. Be sure to put the
disk in Drive 1. The third section tells you what to do once the system is
started. Inserting a Disk in a Disk II Drive
The following instructions explain what to do any time
you want to insert a disk in a Disk II drive.
Make sure the IN USE light on the front of the disk
drive is off. Never remove a disk while this light is on: doing so may
damage the disk or destroy some of the information on it.
Lift the small door on the front of the disk drive. If
there is already a disk in the slot, carefully remove it, and put it in an
envelope.
Holding the disk you want to use with your thumb on
the label, remove it from its envelope.
Gently insert the disk into the slot of the disk
drive, oval-cutout end first, label side up. Be careful not to bend or
force the disk. If you feel any resistance, pull the disk back out slowly
and try again.
When the disk is completely inside, push down on the
small disk drive door until it clicks shut.
[4 photos: opening drive door; removing disk from
envelope; inserting disk in drive; closing drive door] Starting Up (Booting) the System
[photo in margin: power switch on back panel of
computer]
These are the general instructions for starting up the
system if the power is off. The disk in drive 1 must be a startup
disk--such as APPLE PRESENTS...APPLE. You will learn more about startup
disks, and how to restart the system when the power is on, when you read
Chapter 3.
Turn on the TV set or video monitor and let it warm up
for a few moments.
Reach behind the left rear corner of the computer case
and find the power switch with your fingers.
Turn on the computer by pressing the top of the
switch.
You will hear a beep, and the white POWER indicator on
the computer keyboard will light up. A small red lamp on the front of
drive 1 will also light up, and the disk drive will make some whirring and
clicking sounds.
After a few moments, the sounds will stop and the red
lamp will go out. The program loaded from the disk in drive 1 will present
its opening display on the video screen.
Learning about the Keyboard
Now that you have started up the APPLE
PRESENTS...APPLE disk, you should see a display that looks like the one
below. [picture of what the screen should look like after booting the
disk]
When you have finished using the APPLE
PRESENTS...APPLE disk, open the small door on the front of the disk drive,
remove the disk carefully, and return it to its envelope.
If you want, you may now skip to the next chapter. The
"Keyboard Reference" section is just that: it is there for whenever you
may need to refer to it. Figure 2-1 shows what the Apple IIe keyboard looks
like. Notice that the Apple IIe keyboard is similar to an ordinary
typewriter.
There is a diagram of the keyboard. The top row from
left to right is escape 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 dash equals delete and reset.
The reset key is offset from the rest of the keyboard. The top row shifted
is: escape, exclamation, at sign, number sign (shift 3), dollar sign,
percent sign, caret (like an upsidedown v), ampersand (shift 7), asterisk,
open parenthesis, close parenthesis (shift 0), underbar, plus sign,
delete, and the dreaded reset key. The second row has a tab key on the
left, then the familiar q, w, e, r, t, y, u, i, o, p. After p there are
three punctuation keys: open square brackets, close square brackets, and
back slash. The shift of these are open and close curley brackets and a
vertical bar. The third row has a "control" bar on the left, then the
familiar a, s, d, f, g, h, j, k, and l. Then there are two punctuation and
the crucial "return" key. To the left of the "l" there is semi colon and
single quotes. Shifted, these are colon and double quotes. The fourth row
has a shift key on the left, followed by the familiar z, x, c, v, b, n,
and m. Then there are three punctuation keys followed by another shift
key. The punctuation is (fortunately) like a typewriter, comma, period,
and slash. Shifted, these are less than, greater than, and question mark.
The very bottom row is a mystery. Here is where the really strange keys
lie. on the left is caps lock, followed by accent (shifted is a tilda),
followed by a sunken power indicator light, followed by "the open Apple
key", followed by the space bar, followed by "the closed Apple key",
followed by left arrow, right arrow, down arrow, and up arrow. Such a
simple keyboard!
However, the keys on the computer keyboard have an
auto-repeat feature: if you press a key and hold it down for more than a
second, the character it generates is repeated.
With the Apple IIe keyboard, you can send any one of a
set of 128 characters to the computer. What the computer does with the
characters (especially the control characters) depends on the program that
is running at the time. But don't worry about that now.
There are two groups of characters in the set.
96 printing (visible) characters, which include
26 lowercase letters, 26 uppercase letters (CAPS LOCK
or SHIFT key depressed), 10 numerals, 34 special characters (punctuation
and so on; some use SHIFT key)
32 control characters:
All control characters are formed by pressing the
CONTROL key in combination with a printing character key (most are letter
keys).
Seven of these control characters also are available
as single keystrokes. Six are cursor movement keys: RETURN, TAB, and the
four arrow keys. The seventh is the ESC (escape) key. In other words,
there are two ways to generate each of these seven control characters. For
example, CONTROL-M is the same as RETURN. There also are three special function keys
(OPEN-APPLE, SOLID-APPLE and RESET), which are discussed in a later
section of this chapter. These keys cause the computer to do special
things, like restart or perform a self-test.
The RETURN key (Figure 2-2) is an important key on the
keyboard. It serves two purposes:
1 When you are typing text, pressing RETURN indicates
the end of a line and causes the cursor to move to the beginning of the
next line. In this role, the RETURN key is just like the carriage return
on a typewriter. 2 When you are giving commands to the computer, pressing
RETURN is usually the way you indicate the end of the command. In this
role, the RETURN key passes control to the computer, just as the
appearance of the cursor on the screen passes control to you.
[Figure 2-2: keyboard with SPACE bar and RETURN key
highlighted]
The SPACE bar (Figure 2-2) at the bottom of the
keyboard is another key whose role you must understand. Pressing the SPACE
bar generates a space character. That's right, a space is a character -
and a very important one at that.
The Apple IIe, like all other computers, interprets
what you type precisely as you type it. It isn't smart enough to see that
what you typed is similar to something else, the way people can.
Therefore, if a space is needed between letters or words, you must press
the SPACE bar to include the space character. Using the RIGHT-ARROW key to
move the cursor over one space on the screen doesn't add a space
character. The computer often ignores extra spaces, but you have to
provide at least one space character when one is required.
A few other printing-character keys also require
special attention. As we have noted with regard to the space character,
the computer is not smart enough to accept substitutes, unless the
programmer specifically instructs the computer to do so. Here are some
substitutions you should avoid.
Do not confuse the lowercase "l" with the number "1".
Do not confuse the letter "O" with the number "0".
do not confuse the single quote key (located to the
left of the RETURN key) with the alternate single quote (located in the
lower left hand corner of the keyboard, next to the CAPS LOCK key). When
in doubt, use the former.
The Apple IIe has a DELETE key; Apple II and II Plus
don't have this key. Therefore, most programs written for the Apple II
family do not know how to respond to this key. Some programs print a
checkerboard character when you press this key, some ignore it or indicate
an error. Uppercase and Lowercase
Picture the keyboard with the upper- and lowercase
form of each letter printed on the keys. If you leave CAPS LOCK off and do
not use the SHIFT key, you get lowercase letters and the lower characters
on the other printing-character keys.
There are many circumstances when you will want or
need to type only uppercase letters. The CAPS LOCK key makes it easy.
Press the CAPS LOCK key until it clicks into its down
(on) position. When CAPS LOCK is on, all alphabetic characters are
uppercase, the way they are printed on the Apple IIe keys. No other keys
are affected, which is extremely convenient because you can have uppercase
letters without shifting the other printing-character keys.
Press CAPS LOCK a second time and it clicks back into
its up (off) position. With CAPS LOCK off, you have full upper- and
lowercase.
Even with CAPS LOCK on, you must use the SHIFT key to
get the upper characters on the non-alphabetic keys. [picture of keyboard
highlighting shift and CAPS LOCK keys]
There are two SHIFT keys, one on the right and one on
the left, just as on a typewriter. Holding down the SHIFT key while
pressing one of the printing-character keys generates the uppercase letter
or the upper character printed on the key. The upper left-hand corner of the screen (the position
of the cursor in Figure 2-4) is called the cursor's home position. Using
the following group of keys, you can move the cursor around the screen.
[Figure 2-4: drawing of cursor in its home position]
Like other control keys, the cursor movement keys only
work in the way the program you are using makes them work. In particular,
the TAB and UP-ARROW keys are ignored by many programs.
The RETURN key (discussed in an earlier section of
this chapter) moves the cursor to the beginning of the next line.
The LEFT-ARROW key moves the cursor one position to
the left. However, when you press RETURN, the Apple receives only the
information preceding the cursor's current position; so, the LEFT-ARROW
key can remove information.
The RIGHT-ARROW key moves the cursor one position to
the right. Some programs let you use this key to copy text that is already
on the screen. The DOWN-ARROW key moves the cursor down one line,
without erasing what you typed.
The UP-ARROW key moves the cursor up one line, without
erasing what you typed.
The TAB key usually moves the cursor to the next tab
setting. Tabs usually are preset to multiples of eight character
positions. Some programs let you set your own tabs.
Keep in mind that many programs don't let you move the
cursor beyond the boundaries of existing text, unless you are entering new
text. Even then, the program may consider some or all of the arrow
keystrokes invalid; in which case the keystroke is either ignored or
produces a question mark for each invalid keystroke. Always check the
manual that came with the program.
To the Apple IIe, a control character is a nonprinting
character that causes something to happen. Exactly what happens depends on
how a given program interprets each character. You are already familiar
with six control characters: the cursor movement keys discussed in the
previous section. You will get an idea of what other control characters
can be made to do as you use various programs.
[Figure 2-5: drawing of keyboard with ESC key, CONTROL
key, and the 32 accompanying control-character keys highlighted] Each of the control characters is formed by holding
down the CONTROL key while pressing one of the printing character
keys--for example, CONTROL-P.
BY THE WAY: CONTROL-RESET is a special function, which
is discussed in a later section.
NOTE: Manuals spell out control characters, such as
CONTROL-P, in various ways--for example, CTRL-P, <CTRL-P>, [P] or
Pc. Likewise, manuals often spell CONTROL-SHIFT characters, such as
CONTROL-@, as SHIFT-CONTROL-2 or 2cs, and so on, sometimes indicating the
lower character on the key when the upper one is required.
The ESC key is the last and most important of the
control keys. This key is often used to put the computer into escape mode
or to begin an escape sequence. Examples of escape sequences occur in many
programs written for Apple II systems.
Sometimes the notation for an escape sequence seems
tricky at first. For example, ESC @ assumes you've noticed that @ is
actually SHIFT-2 on the Apple IIe keyboard, since @ is on the upper part
of the 2 key. (Even with CAPS LOCK down you need to use SHIFT to get the
@.) It does not take long to get accustomed to escape sequences, and they
are very useful to have around. Three more keys you want to know how to use are
special function keys; that is, they do not generate any characters, but
rather cause the computer to perform some special activity. These three
keys are highlighted in Figure 2-6.
The OPEN-APPLE key, located to the left of the SPACE
bar, has several uses. It is used to invoke the special functions key
listed below. Pressing this key also has the same effect as pressing the
button on hand control #0, so you can use it for various games and other
programs that run on the Apple IIe.
The SOLID-APPLE key also has several uses. The special
functions it invokes also are listed below. Pressing this key also has the
same effect as pressing the button on hand control #1, so you can use it
for various games and other programs that run on the Apple IIe.
The RESET key has great power over the Apple IIe. It
is set apart from the rest of the keyboard so you are less likely to press
it by accident. In fact, you must also hold down the CONTROL key whenever
you press RESET. The special functions described elsewhere in this
manual are:
Restarting the system when the power is on by holding
down OPEN-APPLE while pressing CONTROL-RESET (Chapter 4). Stopping a
program by pressing CONTROL-RESET (Chapter 4). Some programs ignore
CONTROL-RESET. Starting the Apple IIe built-in self-test by holding down
SOLID-APPLE while pressing CONTROL-RESET (Chapter 8).
[Figure 2-6: drawing of keyboard highlighting
OPEN-APPLE, SOLID-APPLE and RESET]
This chapter explains in general terms how an Apple
IIe system works. If you find the discussion and all the new computer
terms difficult to understand, don't worry. You don't need to know exactly
how an internal combustion engine works to drive a car. Likewise, you
don't need to understand exactly what is going on inside the Apple IIe
computer to be able to put it to work for you.
As you read further in this book and experiment with
the system, many of these concepts will become clearer. Be patient with
yourself.
The parts of an Apple IIe system (as outlined in
Chapter 2) fall into three fundamental groups: hardware, software, and
information. Hardware includes the computer and all the physical
devices attached to it.
The most important pieces of hardware in the computer
are main memory and the processor.
Next in importance are the circuits that adapt and
convey signals between the computer and peripheral devices. These circuits
are called interfaces. Some are built in; others, such as the disk
controller card, can be installed in the computer's expansion slots.
Finally, there are the external peripheral devices:
input devices for information going to the computer and output devices for
information coming from the computer. Some devices, such as disk drives,
are combination input/output (I/O) devices used for storage.
[drawing showing monitor, interfaces, keyboard,
printer, and disk drive] Software is made up of the sequences of instructions
(programs) that the processor can carry out when those instructions are in
main memory. The instructions can be changed easily.
Some programs are factory installed in read-only
memory (ROM). These small resident programs cannot be changed, so they are
called firmware.
Most programs are loaded into main memory from a disk.
Those that move information and make it easy to use the system, along with
the resident firmware, are known as the system software. Programs brought
into main memory to make the system do something--organize information, do
calculations, connect the computer with a distant source of information,
and so on--are called application programs. Application software is
discussed in Chapter 5.
[smaller drawing of system, with resident memory
labeled]
Information includes what you type at the keyboard,
what you see on the screen or the printer, or what the program
manipulates. The computer deals with all of this information in the form
of numbers--in fact, in the form of strings of ones and zeros. How the
computer interprets those numbers depends on where it finds them and what
it is trying to do with them. The hardware in the system, as we have seen, falls
into three categories: the processor plus main memory, interfaces to
peripheral devices, and the peripheral devices themselves. The peripheral
devices are easy to understand: they do things we can see, hear, and
touch. But what about the processor and main memory?
The hub of all activity in the system is the
processor. The raw material it deals with is in main memory. The processor
is a robot-like electrical machine that continually carries out a fixed
procedure: as soon as you start up the system, it looks at the first place
in memory and carries out the instruction it finds there; then it moves to
the next place in memory and carries out the instruction located there;
and so on.
In other words, unless one of the instructions the
processor carries out tells it to go somewhere else (which often happens),
the processor can be relied on to move along from one memory location to
the next. All it does, really, is find, move, compare and combine numbers,
and either go on to the next instruction or jump to some other memory
location to continue. That doesn't sound like much, but done at a rate of
about half a million such elementary steps in a second, it is quite
impressive.
[drawing of processor and memory making a poor attempt
to show how the processor manipulates memory] Main memory is the processor's storage area. It is
often called random-access memory (RAM) because you can access any given
location just about as easily as any other.
Main memory is like a grid of thousands of pigeonholes
or post office boxes, each identified by a number called its address. Each
box can hold a code that represents an instruction, the address of a
memory pigeonhole, one character that you type at the keyboard (for
example, the letter M), and so on.
Programs usually occupy areas of main memory separate
from the information they are working on to reduce the probability of
mixing up instructions and information. For example, if a mistake (called
a bug) occurs in somebody's program, the program may try to interpret
someone's telephone number as a program instruction.
Another important aspect of main memory is that while
all of the pigeonholes are accessible to the processor, some also are
accessible to one other device, such as the keyboard or the display
device. These special memory locations are called input/output (I/O)
locations. These are the processor's windows on the outside world.
One last significant fact about main memory: when you
turn off the computer, what you were working on is lost--unless, of
course, you use the system software, specifically an operating system, to
save the information on a disk.
[drawing trying to show division of main memory into
keyboard memory and program area] System software, for purposes of this discussion, is
of three types:
1 The resident Monitor program, which starts up the
system when you turn it on and provides little groups of instructions
(routines) for use by other programs: routines that move information
around, routines that wait for you to press a key, and so on.
2 Language translators, which convert the words or
abbreviations you type in at the keyboard into instructions for the
processor. Each programming language includes a few dozen imperative verbs
plus their objects, like "PRINT THIS" or "ADD THESE NUMBERS UNTIL YOU
REACH THE END OF THE LIST". However, the processor only understands
machine language instructions (like 01101001, which tells the processor to
add two numbers). If you want to program without doing a lot of extra hard
work, you need a translator to bridge the gap between what you type and
the machine language.
3 Operating systems, which make life easy. Instead of
having to learn how to write a program to use the disk drive, or copy
disks, and so on, you can load an operating system into the computer, type
in an easily remembered word or two, and let the operating system program
do the hard work. The figure illustrates what a personal computer
operating system typically does.
[six-part drawing attempting to show what the
operating system does, including loading and saving to disk, and writing
to screen and printer] The operating system that comes with Disk II drives is
called the Disk Operating System (or DOS). The next chapter gives you some
practice using DOS. The programming languages Integer BASIC and Applesoft
BASIC, as well as many ready-made programs, use DOS commands and disks
prepared by DOS.
Another operating system available from Apple
Computer, Inc. for use on the Apple IIe computer is the Pascal Operating
System. This operating system is discussed in Chapter 6.
As you type in your information--the report or
business data or responses to a program's messages--the program you are
conversing with stores the information in a free area of memory.
Occasionally you'll come across the term "buffer." A
buffer in main memory is a holding area where information can be stored
slowly and retrieved quickly, or vice versa.
Another important concept is that of files. When the
computer stores information on a disk, it puts it there in the form of
files.
Disks and Files
One of the services of an operating system program is
taking blank disks and preparing them to receive information. This is
called formatting or initializing. When you format a disk, the program
writes concentric circles of zeros (called tracks) on the disk, like chalk
lines on a racetrack, so the disk drive knows where to write information
later. To speed up reading or writing, the disk drive divides
each track into several pieces called sectors. Operating systems read and
write information on the disk in different ways, using different numbers
of sectors per track; that is why a disk formatted for one operating
system may not work with another.
When you tell the computer to save information on a
disk, a system program divides the information into sector-size pieces
first, so it can be transferred and stored efficiently. Once stored, the
information is called a file.
Some sectors on the disk contain a table of contents
with the name of the disk and the names and locations of all the files
stored on it. Some operating systems call this table of contents a
catalog, some call it a directory.
[drawing of tracks, sectors, and bytes on a disk
showing that there are 35 tracks per disk, 16 sectors per track, and 256
bytes per sector] When you start up or restart the computer, the
processor begins carrying out instructions in the Monitor
program--instructions that tell the processor to look for a disk in drive
1 and load an operating system program if it finds one. This is what
happens when you start up the DOS 3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk (Chapter 4). Then
you can use operating system commands to load and run (use) selected
programs.
Many application programs have either an operating
system or the necessary parts of one with them on a disk so that they can
handle all their needs. A self-contained disk--that is, one that has an
operating system on it--is called a startup disk. If an application
program is on a startup disk, as soon as you turn on the system, you are
talking directly to that program (Chapter 5).
If an operating system isn't accessible when you start
up the system, then all that is in memory is the resident software--the
Monitor program and a translator for the Applesoft BASIC language. For
example, when you use a cassette recorder instead of a disk drive, the
Monitor program can load, save, and run the cassette programs, but that is
all.
As a brief introduction to DOS, the Disk Operating
System that came with your Disk II drive, this chapter presents a series
of exercises you can do to see how an operating system works and what it
does.
DOS, which rhymes with "toss," got its name because it
is a specialist at working with disks. You can find out more about it by
reading through the DOS Manual.
In this chapter, you will find out how to:
Restart the computer when the power is already on,
recognize which program you are conversing with, switch between one BASIC
interpreter and another, see what files are on a disk, run a program, stop
a program, prepare blank disks to receive information, copy one disk onto
another, and interpret error messages.
The startup disk to use for this chapter is the DOS
3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk. Restarting the Computer (Power Already On)
This restart method is recommended whenever the
computer power is already on, as opposed to turning the power off and then
on again. The restart method saves wear and tear on the power switch and
the computer's circuits. Of course, if the power switch is off, use the
startup procedure described in Chapter 2 (in which you turn on the power
switch instead of performing the second step described below).
If the computer's power switch is already on and you
want to restart the system, do this:
Insert a startup disk in disk drive 1 and close the
drive door.
Press and hold down the OPEN-APPLE key. Press
CONTROL-RESET and then let go. Finally, let go of the OPEN-APPLE key.
You will hear a beep from the computer. The disk
drive's IN USE light will come on, and the drive will make whirring and
clicking sounds for a while as the disk is read.
When the operating system (and possibly also an
application program) has been loaded into main memory, the disk drive will
stop, and a cursor will appear on the screen.
BY THE WAY: This method of restarting the system
erases parts of the programs and information in main memory to protect
copyrighted application programs from being duplicated.
When you start up or restart the system using the DOS
3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk, you should see this message (or a similar one) on
the screen:
[screen illustration showing DOS's opening display,
which reads "DOS version 3.3", the date, "APPLE II PLUS OR ROMCARD SYSTEM
MASTER", and, "(LOADING INTEGER INTO LANGUAGE CARD)"] Companions to DOS
DOS, an operating system, works hand in hand with
BASIC, a programming language, and its interpreter (translator). The word
BASIC stands for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. As its
name implies, it is a good language to learn first. (Chapter 6 explains
more about this and other programming languages.)
There are two versions of BASIC available for the
Apple IIe. The Applesoft BASIC interpreter is always in main memory. When
DOS is loaded into main memory from the SYSTEM MASTER disk, another
language translator called the Integer BASIC interpreter is loaded in,
Language translators convert the words and
abbreviations you type into numbers that the processor can
understand--namely, machine language. An interpreter is a language
translator that translates the program and starts the program running in
one continuous operation.
When loading is complete, the computer displays a
prompt, or cue, that indicates which program you are conversing with. With
the Apple IIe, this program is the Applesoft interpreter program; its
prompt is a closing square bracket (]). To the right of the prompt is the
cursor, indicating that the program is waiting for your instructions.
DOS has no prompt of its own. You can tell DOS is in
main memory by typing a DOS command and seeing whether it works or not.
What you type is checked first by DOS and then by the interpreter. And Now to Begin
1 With CAPS LOCK off, type int, and then press the
RETURN key. What message do you see?
The question mark before the error message means the
message comes from the Applesoft interpreter (also knows as just
Applesoft). DOS didn't recognize the lowercase "int," so it passed it on
to Applesoft. But Applesoft didn't recognize the command, either.
SYNTAX ERROR is a message you will see a lot. It
simply means the program couldn't make sense out of what you typed. It
usually means you misspelled a command, forgot to use CAPS LOCK, or
pressed a control character (which doesn't usually appear on the screen)
while typing a command.
2 Turn on CAPS LOCK; that is, press it so the key
clicks into its down position. Always do this before you begin typing
commands to DOS or a BASIC interpreter because they only recognize
uppercase.
3 Type INT and press RETURN. You should now see the
Integer BASIC prompt, a greater-than sign (>), at the left of a new
line. Note that the computer did not bother to remove the ?SYNTAX ERROR
message from the screen, even though it refers to a situation that has
passed.
4 Type FP and press RETURN. You should see the ]
prompt of Applesoft again. When you use DOS, you are conversing with
either DOS and Applesoft or DOS and Integer BASIC; the prompt tells you
which.
5 Now try typing something that DOS almost recognizes:
type CATALOGG (with two G's) and the press RETURN. You'll see "SYNTAX
ERROR" without a question mark to the left of it. Messages with no prefix
are from DOS.
6 Type INT to switch to Integer BASIC again. When you
see > and the cursor, type your name and press RETURN. (Presumably your
name is not a DOS or BASIC command!) You'll see the message
DOS didn't recognize the command, so it passed it on
to the Integer BASIC interpreter. Integer BASIC messages typically begin
with three asterisks. (The final two letters of the word ERROR do not
appear on the screen.) When you use DOS, you are conversing either with DOS
and the Applesoft BASIC interpreter or with DOS and the Integer BASIC
interpreter.
You are conversing with DOS and Applesoft when you see
the Applesoft prompt (]).
You are conversing with DOS and Integer BASIC when you
see the Integer BASIC prompt (>).
To switch from Applesoft to Integer BASIC type INT.
To switch from Integer BASIC to Applesoft, type FP.
Always press RETURN at the end of a command to DOS.
You can tell which program sent you an error message
by the message prefix; for example:
SYNTAX ERROR (no prefix; from DOS)
?SYNTAX ERROR (from Applesoft BASIC)
*** SYNTAX ERR(OR) (from Integer BASIC)
In the remainder of this chapter, you will be using
DOS. One of the two language interpreters will be there as well, to
translate whatever program DOS loads from the disk.
Of course, if you decide to write a program of your
own, the interpreter will translate that into machine language, too.
However, in this chapter, DOS is in the spotlight. Chapter 6 explains more
about the interpreters and writing your own programs.
Seeing What's on a Disk (CATALOG Command)
Whenever DOS stores information on a disk--whether
that information is a program, a list of telephone numbers, or a
report--it stores it as a file and gives the file a name. The names and
locations of all files on a disk are stored in a special disk area called
(in DOS) the catalog. The catalog is like a table of contents for the
disk.
Here's how to get a DOS disk's table of contents onto
the display screen so you can read it:
Type CATALOG and press RETURN. After a second or two,
the catalog should appear on the screen. Your catalog should resemble the
one in Figure 4-1, but it may not be exactly the same. [Figure 4-1: full-page catalog illustration] Running a Program (RUN Command)
The DOS 3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk has several programs
you can try--right now. Put the disk into drive 1 and type CATALOG. Look
at the second column from the left. (An asterisk means the file is locked,
and you can't change or erase that file, but it's OK to run it.)
You can try any program with an A (for Applesoft) or
an I (for Integer BASIC) using the RUN command.
To run a program--for example, ANIMALS--do this:
1 Type RUN ANIMALS and press RETURN.
2 Wait a few seconds for the Apple to find, load, and
start the program called ANIMALS.
3 When the program asks (prompts) you for information,
enter the answers at the keyboard. Or if you get tired of ANIMALS and want
to run another program--say, LITTLE BRICK OUT-- press CONTROL-RESET, and
then type RUN LITTLE BRICK OUT.
Have fun for a while. Run some Applesoft (A) or
Integer BASIC (I) programs.
Stopping a Program
Suppose you want to stop a program. Usually the
program will offer you that option from time to time, and even tell you
how to do it. But to get out of a program at any time, try these six
methods, which are listed in order of increasing severity:
1 Press the ESC key. This key is in the upper
left-hand corner of your keyboard. Its full name is escape, and if you're
lucky, that's what it'll help you do.
2 Press CONTROL-C. Many programs think of CONTROL-C as
"cancel."
3 Press CONTROL-C and then RETURN. Some programs don't
get the hint unless you reinforce it.
4 Press CONTROL-RESET. The program will stop or return
to its opening menu and, in most cases, remain in memory, unharmed.
5 Press the OPEN-APPLE key and hold it until you've
pressed and let go of CONTROL-RESET. This is the power-on restart
procedure discussed earlier, and it is pretty drastic. All your current
work in main memory is lost in the process.
6 Turn off the power. You will rarely have to go this
far to exit from a program. But it's a powerful way to show the computer
who's boss. Don't forget, though, all your current work in memory will be
lost. Preparing New Disks for Use (INIT Command)
When you buy blank disks, they have nothing recorded
on them--just like blank tape for a tape recorder. But before a disk can
receive information from DOS, you must prepare it using the INIT command.
This preparation process is called initializing or formatting. Here's how
to do it using only one drive. (The DOS Manual tells you how to do it with
two drives.)
1 Put the DOS 3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk into drive 1.
Restart the system. (Remember how? If not, reread the description early in
this chapter.)
2 When Applesoft's ] appears on the screen, remove the
DOS 3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk, and place a blank disk in drive 1. Close the
drive door.
3 Make sure CAPS LOCK is on. To make a little greeting
program to put on your new disk, first type NEW and press RETURN to erase
anything that may be in the free area of main memory.
Now type this three-line program, substituting your
name 400 and the date in the second line. Press RETURN after typing each
line:
If you keep getting SYNTAX ERROR messages, you
probably forgot to turn on CAPS LOCK.
4 Type INIT HELLO and press RETURN. The disk drive
will whir for a while. When formatting is complete, the cursor will
reappear on the screen and the IN USE light on the disk drive will go out.
DOS formatted the disk (as explained in Chapter 2),
and then wrote your greeting program on it, naming the program HELLO.
5 It is a good idea to test the disk to make sure it
is in fact formatted. Type CATALOG and press RETURN.
You should see a short catalog like this:
DOS assigned your disk the volume number 254
(which it always does unless you specify a different number), and wrote
your Applesoft (A) program on it, two (002) sectors long, with the name
HELLO. Copying Entire Disks (COPY Command)
From time to time you will want to make copies of
disks. Why? To have a backup copy of your favorite programs or the records
you spent so much time typing in, or perhaps to have a copy of a friend's
program.
To copy one disk onto another, the receiving disk must
have a notch along one side of it: otherwise the disk drive will not write
on it. (This is a convenient feature. It's one way to prevent accidentally
writing over important information.) A disk that has no write-enable
notch, or one that has tape over the notch, is write-protected; that is,
no files on the disk can be modified, added to, or erased.
Some program disks are copy-protected; that is, the
software is designed so you can't copy it, or if you do copy it, it won't
work.
Any disk that is not copy-protected can be copied onto
any disk that is not write-protected.
NOTE: The copy program automatically formats the
receiving disk before copying information onto it. Formatting erases any
information that may have been on the disk.
How to copy a disk using one drive:
Start or restart the system with the DOS 3.3 SYSTEM
MASTER disk.
Type CATALOG and press RETURN. Notice that there are
two copy programs--one that runs in Applesoft (COPYA, with an A next to it
in the catalog) and one that runs in Integer BASIC (COPY, with an I next
to it in the catalog). Since you have access to both types of BASIC, you
can run either program.
Type RUN COPYA and press RETURN.
Wait for the program to get started. The computer will
ask you six questions, one at a time:
1 First the copy program says ORIGINAL SLOT DEFAULT 6,
meaning that unless you tell it otherwise, it will assume that the
original disk is connected via slot 6. Well, it is, so just press RETURN.
2 Likewise, just press RETURN in reply to the second
question since the original disk is in drive 1. 3 Now the computer asks questions about the new, or
duplicate, disk. Since, it too, will be in slot 6, press the RETURN key.
4 The computer will assume that the new disk is in
drive 2, even if you don't have two drives connected. Since you are doing
this with only one drive, change the duplicate drive number from 2 to 1 by
pressing the 1 key.
5 Press RETURN when you are ready to start the
program. Since you are using only one drive, the program will ask you to
do some swapping of source and destination (original and copy) disks.
Nothing is wrong: a disk has a lot more information than the Apple's free
memory can hold, so the program makes the transfer in several steps.
6 When the transfer has been completed, the program
asks if you want to make another copy. Press N for "no."
After you make a copy of any disk, it is always a good
idea to test the new copy, either by checking its catalog or, if it is a
startup (boot) disk, by seeing if you can use it to start the system. Try
it and see.
Disks That Don't Seem to Work
As you use the Apple IIe, sooner or later you will
come across disks that don't seem to work. They fall into three general
categories:
1 Those that make an even whirring sound when you try
to start the system with them or load a program from them. This always
happens to disks formatted by an earlier version of DOS. The manuals that
come with such disks usually make reference to DOS 3.2.1, 3.2, or possibly
an even earlier version.
2 A faulty or blank disk also might just spin.
3 Disks that use other operating systems or languages
(such as Pascal) can cause the drive to clack away noisily.
Disks that have been formatted by an earlier version
of DOS (formatted with 13 sectors per track instead of 16) can be dealt
with in two ways: you can do a two-disk startup every time or you can use
a program called MUFFIN to copy a 13-sector disk onto a 16-sector one.
These methods are explained in the next two sections. Making a 13-sector Disk Work As Is
If you plan to use a 13-sector disk only once in
awhile, or if it is copy-protected, do a two-disk startup:
Put the disk labeled DOS 3.3 BASICS in drive 1, close
the drive door, and start or restart the system. When you see the message,
INSERT YOUR 13-SECTOR DISKETTE AND PRESS RETURN, be sure to put the
13-sector disk in drive 1.
If the disk is not copy-protected, you can avoid this
two-disk startup procedure by transferring the files to a 16-sector disk
using MUFFIN.
Converting Programs to 16 Sectors Per Track
After you're a bit more comfortable with your
computer, you might want to read the section in the DOS Manual about the
program MUFFIN on the DOS 3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk.
MUFFIN takes a program (or any other type of file)
from a 13-sector disk and transfers it to a 16-sector disk. However,
MUFFIN won't work for copy-protected programs.
If you make mistakes, don't panic. Just about every
program has error messages that tell you what you did wrong. If you get
yourself in a real mess, you can always restart the system and begin anew.
Recall from earlier in this chapter that error
messages can come from DOS or whichever BASIC interpreter you are using
when the error occurs. Each error message, therefore, has three possible
forms:
1 SYNTAX ERROR message and a beep (DOS)
2 ?SYNTAX ERROR message and a beep (Applesoft BASIC)
3 *** SYNTAX ERR(OR) message and a beep (Integer
BASIC)
DOS seldom takes exception to what you type; if it
doesn't recognize something, it usually passes it on to the BASIC
interpreter in use.
Computer syntax, like the syntax of human language,
has to do with the way you put words and statements together. To the
computer, syntax also refers to spelling. The most common cause of a
SYNTAX ERROR message is a typing mistake. If there is no write-enable notch on a disk, or if the
notch is covered with a tab, you will get this message. If there is a tab
on the notch, remove it; if there is no notch, it may be an inportant
program disk and you should consider writing the information on another
disk.
This message occurs when you try to write information
on a disk using a file name that is already on the disk and the file is
locked (the file's catalog entry is preceded by an asterisk). You can
unlock a file--for example, a file named HELLO--by typing the command
UNLOCK HELLO.
Locking is a nice feature: it prevents you or someone
else from accidentally erasing a program you want to save. Imagine how bad
you'd feel if all the hard work you put into writing a program was wiped
out by a copying error. You can lock a file--for example, a file named
MATHQUIZ--by typing the command LOCK MATHQUIZ.
This often occurs if there is a poor connection
between the computer and the disk drive or a printer, or if a disk is not
properly aligned, or if the drive door is not closed.
You can always use the CATALOG command to find out
what type of files are on a disk. DOS creates four types of commands in
this chapter--commands that are very useful. Besides that, you now have an
idea of how operating systems work and what they do. Here are the commands
you used:
INT to switch to the Integer BASIC interpreter FP to
switch to the Applesoft interpreter CATALOG to display a disk's table of
contents RUN to load and run a program INIT to prepare a disk to receive
information COPY to duplicate one disk onto another LOCK to protect an
individual file from accidental alteration or erasure UNLOCK to remove
write-protection from a file You also know:
how to restart the system when the power is already on
how to identify which program you are conversing with how to stop a
program how to write-protect whole disks and individual files The Apple IIe computer demonstrates its true power and
value when you put it to work on your own real-world problems. The
computer, in combination with the video monitor, disk drive, and any
additional devices, puts an integrated system at your disposal.
Application programs use the system's resources to do a wide variety of
tasks. In this chapter we will focus on:
Electronic Worksheets: powerful tools for testing
assumptions, these programs let you put values into a checkerboard-like
grid and define the way you want the values to interrelate.
Word Processors: programs that let you write memos,
letters, reports, even books, these use the computer system to gather,
change, and format text.
Data Base Management Programs: these take information
and structure it for selective manipulation and retrieval.
Telecommunications: programs and equipment that make
it possible to send and receive information across distances.
Graphics Programs: these let you draw pictures on the
screen, in black-and-white or color, and in some cases transfer the
pictures to paper (using a dot printer or a plotter).
Before looking more closely at some of these
application programs, you need to know:
What differences to expect when using the Apple IIe
computer to run programs written for earlier models of the machine (Apple
II and II Plus computers)
What mistakes people most frequently make and what to
do about them
How the application programs make the parts of the
system work together. Differences from the Apple II and II Plus
The Apple IIe computer has several features that the
Apple II and II Plus do not have. Some of these features change the way
you use programs written for the Apple II and II Plus. As time passes, of
course, more and more programs will be revised to take these features into
account.
The following are the most important new features of
the Apple IIe:
An enhanced keyboard that generate more printing
characters than the Apple II or II Plus, especially lowercase letters
An auxiliary slot to hold auxiliary cards available
for the Apple IIe, such as an Apple 80-column text card
65,536 bytes (64K) of main memory
a built-in language system (which used to be an
option)
Some of these features are interrelated. They are
explained in the next three sections.
Many programs written for the Apple II and II Plus do
not recognize lowercase letters. To adapt the Apple IIe to this situation,
press the CAPS LOCK key until it clicks into its down (on) position. CAPS
LOCK acts like a typewriter's shift lock key for letters only.
The REPT key on Apple II and II Plus has been replaced
by an auto-repeat feature: all the printing-character keys repeat
automatically if you hold the keys down more than a second or so.
Several keys are new (for example, Delete); some are
in different locations (for example, the arrow keys); some are in
different combinations (for example, ^ is on the 6 key instead of on the
N key). The Apple IIe keyboard also has 11 more keys than the Apple II or
II Plus keyboard.
Two new keys--OPEN-APPLE and SOLID-APPLE--are special
function keys. They are used in combination with other keys for invoking
the built-in self-tests and performing a power-on restart. Application
programs can use these keys as hand control buttons or in various other
ways the programmer finds appropriate. The computer treats any card you install in the
auxiliary connector slot as if it were in slot 3. This is so that programs
written for older Apple IIs with 80-column text cards installed in slot 3
will still run properly.
If you install the Apple 80-column text card, or the
combination 80-column text and auxiliary memory card, in the auxiliary
slot, do the following:
Make sure no card is in slot 3.
Install the text or combination text and memory card
in slot 3.
Turn on the card by typing PR#3 (if the program does
not do the equivalent automatically) after starting up or restarting the
computer.
If you want to turn off the card, press ESC and then
CONTROL-Q. Do not use PR#0 in this case because it will lead to
unpredictable results.
BY THE WAY: You can use many of the 80-column text
cards available on the market, except those that require extra connections
on the main circuit board (which has changed). Simply install the card in
slot 3, and turn it on and off in the usual way.
When the Apple 80-column text card is first turned on,
it displays 80 character positions per line. However, you can switch
between 40 and 80 characters per line--a useful feature if you want to mix
text and color graphics. This and other features of the 80-column text
card are fully described in the Apple IIe 80-Column Text Card Manual.
The combinations of normal (light-on-dark), inverse
(dark-on-light), and flashing characters available with Apple 80-column
text cards are described in the Apple IIe Reference Manual.
Every Apple IIe has 65,536 (64K) main memory locations
as standard equipment. This includes 48K of RAM and the 16K of RAM that
used to be part of the optional language card (now built-in). Slot 0 is no
longer on the main board. Mistakes and What to Do About Them
One of the advantages of using a computer is that if
you make mistakes, you can easily correct them without having to redo all
the other work you have done. For example, if you are preparing a report
that has to be letter perfect, you can type the text and make corrections
in the computer file before printing a final copy. If you notice errors
after printing, you can go back into the text, make the changes, and print
it again--instead of retyping everything by hand.
The only really big mistake is to type in information
for long periods of time without occasionally backing up your work--say,
after every page or every ten minutes. Backing up means saving your work
onto a disk, or even better, onto two disks. Whenever possible, make two
disk copies of everything. Then if one copy is damaged, you still have
another.
As you go along, you are bound to make some typing
errors. The computer, being literal-minded, can't figure out what you
meant to type, even if to you it looks close. Error messages usually mean
the computer didn't recognize what you typed or tried to do something that
didn't work as expected.
To understand what is happening when you run programs,
especially application programs, it is important to appreciate three
concepts:
1 What program you are conversing with at any given
time.
2 The relationship between what you see on the screen
and what is stored in main memory.
3 The overall order in which things are done.
What Program Are You Conversing With?
Once an application program is in main memory, you
exchange information and messages with it most of the time--not with the
operating system and other system software (language interpreter, Monitor
program, and so on) that also are in memory. The system software is there
for the application program to use--sort of working in the background. It
is also there for you to use if you exit from the program. [drawing of memory planes with program names and
arrows, etc.]
Knowing what program you are conversing with is
important because you may try to type an operating system command (like
those in Chapter 4) only to find that it doesn't work. Or you may wonder
why control characters described as having some particular effect (for
example, the ones listed in the 80-column card manual) do not always seem
to work.
The application program can be thought of as having a
filter (Figure 5-1) that captures most or all of what you type at the
keyboard, but sometimes lets control characters "drop through" to a system
program. In the latter case, the system program carries out the command
the control character indicates before jumping back into the application
program.
Some application programs intercept certain commands
and control characters, discarding them or interpreting them in their own
way. As you type information in response to the application
program's requests, the information--as structured by the
program--accumulates in the free area of main memory. If, as an example,
the program is an electronic worksheet or a word processor, this
information soon exceeds the limits of what you can see on the screen all
at once.
Picture the information in memory as being written on
a continuous sheet of paper and the display screen as a window in front of
that sheet (Figure 5-2). Application programs designed to amass
information always have commands for changing what you see through that
window, which is called scrolling.
[drawing of information on a rolled scroll behind a
TV-shaped window]
Some programs even allow you to split the display
screen into two or more windows (sometimes called viewports) in different
places on the scroll (Figure 5-3). This feature makes it easier to
correlate information as you work. [drawing of two windows on different parts of a rolled
scroll]
The Rhythm of Work
A pattern develops when you and the computer work
together to process large amounts of information. It usually follows these
steps:
1 If the program does not have an operating system on
its disk, start up the operating system and use it to prepare (format)
disks.
2 Start up the application program.
3 Set up the work environment: specify the overall
nature of what you will be working with (size of work areas, kind of
information, and so on).
4 Possibly load previous work into memory.
5 Move the window and cursor to the place where you
want to work. (If you are beginning a new project, you probably already
are there.)
6 Insert and edit (delete, replace, add to, duplicate,
move around) your information. Sometimes you have to indicate the nature
of each piece of information.
7 Repeat steps 5 and 6 until you have completed the
desired amount of work.
8 Save the work as a file on a disk. (Most application
programs can call upon the operating system to prepare disks if
necessary.)
9 Indicate how you want the information to be printed.
10 Print the results on paper.
This may seem somewhat complicated, but people do
complex tasks all the time without realizing it. In any case, word
processing and data base management programs and electronic worksheets are
all organized to help you perform these steps. Electronic worksheets are programs that link columns
and rows of values in any way you choose. A typical electronic worksheet
employs as many as 63 columns and 254 rows in which you can place formulas
that tie together, for example, growth projections, unit sales, dollar
volumes, and pre-tax profits. With no programming experience, you can
create your own model, enter hypothetical values, and let the program
calculate the outcome.
Many software companies offer ready-made worksheet
models tailored to specific applications. Apple's VisiCalc (TM) offers a
library of formatted templates, such as the Real Estate Templates, which
make it easy to type in and evaluate potential property ventures.
Managers use programs like Plan80 to do financial
modeling, create forecasts, and develop pricing strategies.
Financial professionals use electronic worksheets to
prepare statements, compute ratios, and modify projections--all in seconds
rather than hours or days.
With the Apple IIe and a word processing program, you
can write, revise, and edit practically anything--letters, reports,
proposals, novels--with efficiency and economy.
Using text editing, as it is sometimes called, you can
correct spelling mistakes, juggle text, even search for and replace all
occurrences of specific words or phrases with a minimum of effort. You can
easily create multiple copies of a form letter, for example, varying
selected parts while duplicating the rest. And you can file away a copy of
the document on a disk for future use, instead of keeping stacks of paper
on your desk.
Apple Writer is a good example of what a powerful word
processor can do. When you have finished writing, you can reformat the
text any way you want, quickly and easily, for printing.
Probably the first thing you'll want to do with Apple
Writer is link it, through the Apple IIe, to a printer. Many companies
offer printers compatible with Apple IIe computer systems. See Chapter 7
for a discussion of the types of printers you can use.
You also can link Apple Writer to other programs, such
as Goodspell (TM), which checks every word you type against its
14,000-word dictionary, calling your attention to those it doesn't
recognize. No more leafing through a spelling book every time you type a
page! How do you organize information? Do you have a filing
cabinet? What about all the business cards you've collected from clients
and suppliers? How much information do you try to keep current in your
head?
With the Apple IIe, you can structure thousands of
pieces of information and selectively retrieve, combine, display, or print
them--even from multiple files. The pieces are your data; the program puts
them together to form a base. And once organized, you can manage the
data--that is what data base management is all about.
Here is an example of what a data base manager can do.
Suppose you have a collection of magazines and professional journals.
However, this collection is in various locations at home and at work--some
stacked neatly in the closet, a few on your desk at the office, others
strategically located where you do much of your reading. You want to find
that article you read last summer on solar heating, but you're not exactly
sure of the magazine or month. You may have to root around at home and in
your office for quite a while before you find what you are looking for.
Pretend instead that you have a data base set up for
your computer. You've arranged your magazine collection by name and month,
and you've included the table of contents for each magazine. If you can't
remember in which magazine the solar article appeared, you start up the
data base manager on the Apple IIe. The data base manager can list all the
magazines you got in May or in August, or you can ask the program to scan
all the tables of contents looking for the word "solar." The scan might
even turn up some other articles on solar heating that you'd missed or
forgotten.
Consider the possibilities: your address book, your
stamp collection, your file cards--anything you've got that you want to
keep track of. That's what data base management is for.
But how much trouble is it to get all your information
into the computer? Less trouble than you think: you can type in the
information a little at a time or all at once. Whatever portion you've
typed in, you can use right away. And once it's done, it's done for good.
Here are a few data base management systems you might
consider:
PFS: The Personal Filing System (TM) is a small-scale
data base manager from Software Publishing Corporation.
PFS Report Generator (TM) is a companion product that
prints material in whatever format you choose: as mailing labels, rows and
columns, double spaced, however you want.
DB Master (TM) from Stoneware is a more sophisticated
data base system that can select information on the basis of multiple
criteria and put the selections in any order you choose. These systems let you design your own forms, then
display them on the screen while you type in the data. Once you have
filled in the information and stored it on a disk, you can retrieve it in
any number of ways: by individual characteristics or by combinations of
them.
You can also connect your computer to large data base
services, using your telephone as a link. These possibilities are
discussed in the next section.
Telecommunications is a fancy word for moving
information quickly across town or across a continent. You use
telecommunications every time you turn on your TV set or radio or dial
your telephone. The Apple IIe computer is capable of giving you access to
a multitude of telecommunications resources.
To connect the Apple IIe to other Apple computers far
away or to large computer information services, use your telephone and a
device called a modem. A modem converts electrical signals from the Apple
IIe into tones for transmission over telephone lines and vice versa. You
can purchase a modem at most computer stores.
You also can use the Apple Super Serial Card with a
low-cost modem and still use the card with your printer at other times.
Chapter 7 explains more about the Super Serial Card.
What telecommunications services are available? Here
are just a few:
Many metropolitan libraries provide telephone links to
search their card catalogs without leaving home.
Using telephone lines as a network, it's possible to
exchange messages with other people who have Apple computers and modems.
News services, such as The Source (SM) and Compuserve
Information Service (TM), offer access to several different news agencies,
including AP and UPI. With a subscription you can follow stories in depth,
reading the news as it "comes across the wire," the way journalists do.
Many communities have computer bulletin boards. To
find out about the bulletin boards in your area, consult your local Apple
user group.
With a student or faculty account number, you can
access university computer centers. Apple's Dow Jones News and Quotes Reporter offers
subscribers access to all of Dow Jones's published and unpublished stories
for the previous three months, as well as price quotations for more than
6,000 securities sold on the major stock exchanges.
Apple's Dow Jones Series Portfolio Evaluator maintains
subscriber's stock portfolio records (about 100 portfolios of 50 stocks
each per disk), analyzing each portfolio for short- and long-term gains
and losses and current values.
The list of telecommunications services is long--and
growing. There are Apple user groups across the country that can help you
find out more about what's available in your area.
The Apple IIe is capable of creating pictures on the
screen in color as well as black-and-white. There are two graphics modes
available:
Low-Resolution Graphics, which displays a grid of
small blocks on the screen in any of 16 colors; grid is 40 blocks wide and
48 blocks high
High-Resolution Graphics, which displays a grid of
tiny dots on the screen in any of six colors; grid is 280 dots wide and
192 dots wide
The Apple IIe Reference Manual explains the exact
attributes of the two graphics modes. For more information on how you can
create graphics, consult the manual that comes with each product.
Apple Computer, Inc. manufactures a Graphics Tablet
(Chapter 7) with which you can draw black-and-white or color pictures by
moving an electronic pen over a special pad.
There are also dozens of ready-made programs you can
use to create graphic images and even animation. You can also write your
own graphics programs in Applesoft BASIC, Pascal, Logo, or PILOT.
Clearly, the Apple II family of computers can be used
for thousands of purposes besides those discussed in this chapter.
Scientists, lab technicians, handicapped people, educators, oil rig
operators, librarians, and many other professionals use Apple computers in
their work. And even professionals can't resist keeping a set of hand
controls connected for an occasional game session.
This chapter describes the features of the computer
languages available for the Apple IIe.
Computer languages can be loosely divided into two
groups: high-level languages and low-level languages. High-level
languages, such as Logo, PILOT, Pascal, BASIC, and FORTRAN, use commands
and concepts more akin to everyday human language and thought; they do not
require an intimate knowledge of the computer. At the other end of the
spectrum are the low-level languages: assembly language and machine
language. These take longer to learn, but the reward is detailed knowledge
of and control over the machine.
No matter what language you write programs in, you
need the help of two kinds of system software: an operating system to move
and store the program and a language translator to convert the words and
symbols into machine language instructions that the Apple IIe processor
can understand. Chapter 3 discussed operating systems in general. In
Chapter 4 you had an opportunity to use DOS, the operating system that
comes with a Disk II drive. Another operating system available from Apple
Computer, Inc., is the Pascal Operating System. The Pascal Operating
System is completely independent of DOS. It features single-keystroke
commands for disk and program preparation, file handling, and text
editing.
There are other operating systems you can use on the
Apple IIe. The most popular of these is CP/M. CP/M comes with an accessory
card called the Z80 card, which you install in slot 7 of the Apple IIe.
The Z80 card is named after the Z80 processor it contains--a processor
similar to the Apple's 6502, but one that uses a different machine
language. With the Z80 card and CP/M installed in the Apple IIe, you gain
the versatility of two cooperating processors and operating systems and
access to the wealth of programs written for the Z80 microprocessor.
Programming languages use words and abbreviations
designed to be easy to use. The processor, on the other hand, only
recognizes coded numbers called machine language. Language translators
bridge the gap between the programming language and the language of the
machine. There are three kinds of programming language translators:
One that does its work on the fly, keeping up
statement by statement (like a translator at the United Nations), or one
that keeps a copy of the original program language and translates it each
time the program is run, is called an interpreter.
One that translates an entire program once (like a
book translator), with the possibility of translating one programming
language statement into several machine-language statements, is called a
compiler. A compiler also can attach (link) ready-made programs, which are
kept in a program library, to your program.
One that translates your program instructions one for
one into processor instructions is called an assembler.
Selecting a Computer Language
It is not as difficult as you may think to pick out a
computer language to satisfy your needs. Once you have selected one, you
are not stuck with it for life, either. You can write a program in one
language one day and in two others the next.
Your choice will depend on the task you're performing
or the problem you're solving. Applesoft BASIC--Free and Easy
The Apple IIe has Applesoft BASIC (Beginner's
All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) built right in. As soon as you
start up the Apple IIe, Applesoft is there, waiting for you to use it. It
is what is called a floating point language, which means it can handle
very large and very small numbers, making it well suited to solving
numerical problems.
The Applesoft Tutorial is a step-by-step guide for
beginners. With a wealth of exercises, the manual builds carefully from
simple examples to more complex ones.
Once you have gained sufficient experience with the
tutorial, consult the Applesoft Reference Manual for a thorough
description of all the commands. The reference manual is thick, but it is
set up so you only have to read specific sections to find answers to
questions.
BY THE WAY: Don't forget that Applesoft BASIC commands
must be uppercase.
If you start up the system with the DOS 3.3 SYSTEM
MASTER disk, you also have access to another dialect of the BASIC
language: Integer BASIC. Although unable to deal with decimal numbers like
Applesoft, Integer BASIC nevertheless has advantages of its own: it has a
built-in miniassembler for writing and spot-checking (but not fully
testing) assembly language programs, and it checks for syntax errors as
you type in each line--so you know immediately if you have made a typing
mistake. One of the primary aims in the development of Pascal
was to make a language that could be used to teach programming as a clear,
systematic approach to problem solving. Pascal statements are put together
a lot like statements in ordinary language, and structuring Pascal
programs is good mental exercise: it helps you think clearly about the
problem you are trying to solve and the method for solving it.
FORTRAN--An Old Hand at Science
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) is one of the oldest
(1957) and most widely used computer languages. Its combination of
mathematical simplicity and power has made it a favorite for solving
scientific and business problems. Its weakness is its handling of input
and output; for example, creating reports or manipulating text.
Apple FORTRAN is closely connected to the Apple Pascal
Operating System. You can write FORTRAN programs as text files using the
Pascal Editor, then compile and link them to ready-made mathematical
programs using programs on the FORTRAN disks.
Logo is a recently created language that introduces
programming in an intuitive way. It is so simple, an 8-year-old can use
it. For example, you can start by teaching a turtle (a small triangle that
moves around the screen) how to draw geometric shapes and then how to
combine the shapes into pictures. Bugs (program activities that don't work
right) are treated as normal occurrences in any learning process, instead
of as wrong answers. Logo is designed to convey programming concepts in a
natural problem-solving manner. PILOT--A Language for Teachers
PILOT is a tool for teachers. A teacher can use it to
create computer-aided instruction (CAI) lessons for the classroom that
include color graphics, sound effects, lesson text, and answer checking.
Since lessons are saved on a disk, a teacher can create a versatile lesson
library, allowing students to learn at their own pace.
6502 Assembly Language--The Apple's Native Tongue
Learning the language of a foreign country is more
difficult than using a translator, but it gives you the chance to
understand exactly what is going on around you. Learning assembly language
is a similar experience.
Once you learn assembly language, you can see for
yourself what the computer is doing and how it does it; you can write
programs that tightly control the computer's activities, performing tasks
in a minimum of time.
Assembly language is not everyone's cup of tea, but
you can get acquainted with it by glancing through program listings when
you run across them (for example, in peripheral card manuals).
Apple provides disks and manuals to help you write and
troubleshoot (debug) assembly language programs. Chapter 8 lists those
manuals.
This chapter is an overview of the kinds of additional
equipment you can connect to the Apple IIe and how to connect that
equipment.
If you need to, refer to the photographs (in Chapter
1) of the inside of the computer and the computer's back panel for
identification of slots and connectors. Chapter 1 also includes general
instructions for connecting additional equipment.
If you want to install more than two disk drives,
install the second disk interface (controller) card in slot 5 for the
third and fourth drives, and the third disk interface card in slot 4 for
the fifth and sixth drives. Six is the maximum number of Disk II drives
you should connect to an Apple IIe.
Printers give the Apple IIe computer a new dimension
of versatility. However, to connect a printer to the computer (other than
a Silentype printer), you must find out whether it is a parallel printer
or a serial printer. This determines what type of interface card and cable
you will need to connect the printer to the computer. A Silentype printer comes with its own interface card
and cable.
A parallel printer or plotter receives information one
character (letter, number, etc.) at a time through eight wires. Additional
wires are needed to exchange control signals. To connect a parallel
printer to the computer, you need an Apple II Parallel Interface card, or
its equivalent, and an appropriate cable.
A serial printer or plotter receives information one
bit at a time through a single wire. (One character equals eight bits.)
One or more additional wires may be necessary to exchange control signals.
To connect a serial printer to the computer, you need an Apple II Super
Serial Card, or its equivalent, and an appropriate cable.
Printers also can be classified by the printing
methods they use.
Thermal printers, such as the Silentype printer, use a
roll of heat-sensitive paper to produce clear, draft- quality text or
finely detailed charts. Thermal printers are quiet, economical, and
reliable, but they cannot produce clear, sharp letters or print on
ordinary paper. Dot matrix impact printers create text characters and
graphs with a series of closely spaced dots. Impact printers use tiny
hammers to strike a needle mechanism against the paper at precise moments
as the print head moves across the page. In terms of quality and price,
these printers stand between the thermal printers and daisy-wheel
printers. Some produce dot patterns fine enough to approach the print
quality of daisy-wheel printers.
Letter-quality printers produce clear, sharp
characters on ordinary paper. The most common type uses a daisy-shaped
wheel with characters on the ends of flexible stalks. As the wheel spins
at high speed and the print head moves across the page, a hammer strikes
the appropriate letters, producing text of higher quality than even a fine
typewriter. Some printers of this type use thimble or golf-ball print
mechanisms instead of a daisy wheel. Letter-quality printers are more
expensive, but they produce the best-looking results.
One letter-quality printer compatible with the Apple
IIe is the Qume Sprint 5 (TM), which offers a wide range of type fonts and
sizes on its interchangeable daisy wheels.
[small photo in margin showing printers and graphics
tablet; larger photo shows computer, monitor and disk drive]
The Apple IIe computer has a 9-pin connector on its
back panel for connection of hand controls--that is, a pair of game
paddles, a joystick, and so on. If the hand controls are furnished with a
9-pin connector, simply connect it to the Apple IIe back panel. You can connect an Apple IIe to other computers that
are nearby (local) or not so nearby (remote), but methods vary. Here are a
few local setups:
Install a Super Serial Card in an Apple IIe, then
connect a cable from the card to any other Apple II (II, II Plus or IIe)
that also has a serial or communications card or to the RS-232-C connector
on the back of an Apple III.
Install a Parallel Interface Card in an Apple IIe,
then connect a cable from the card to any other Apple II or Apple III that
also as a Parallel Interface Card.
Here are some possible setups for connecting the Apple
IIe to a remote computer (that is, one too far away for direct cable
connection):
Install a Super Serial Card in your Apple IIe, then
connect the card to a modem, and the modem to your telephone. Through
telephone lines you can reach a friend or subscribe to one or more of the
information services outlined in "Telecommunications," Chapter 5. You can
also use the Super Serial Card to run a serial printer when you are not
using it for telecommunications.
Buy a modem that has its own interface card.
The Apple IIe computer has a cassette input and output
jack built into its back panel (Chapter 1) for attachment of a cassette
tape recorder.
If you use a cassette recorder instead of a disk
drive:
The only system software available is the monitor
program and the Applesoft interpreter.
DOS is not available on cassette; hence there is no
way to load it into main memory.
The Integer BASIC interpreter is not available on
cassette and it is not built into main memory; hence you cannot run
Integer BASIC programs loaded from cassette.
If you do have a disk drive, you can load DOS and
Integer BASIC from the DOS 3.3 SYSTEM MASTER disk, then load an Integer
BASIC program from cassette and run it. Connecting a Cassette Recorder
If you only want to load programs from a cassette
recorder, you need only one cable from the recorder to the computer. But
if you want to be able to save programs on tape as well, you need two
cables (or one double cable). The computer end of each cable must have a
miniature phono plug on it. Such cables may have been furnished with the
recorder. If not, you can obtain appropriate cables at an electronics
store.
For loading programs from tape into main memory,
connect the miniature phono end of one cable to the cassette input jack on
the back panel of the computer. Connect the other end of the cable to the
earphone or monitor output jack of the recorder.
If you want to save programs on tape, connect the
miniature phono end of another cable to the cassette output jack on the
back panel of the computer. Connect the other end of the cable to the
microphone jack on the recorder.
[small photo in margin showing cassette jacks]
Using a Cassette Recorder
Loading programs from a cassette recorder is a
trial-and-error process the first time. Instead of adjusting the volume to
suit your listening preference, you are adjusting the volume to put
information into the computer.
1 Make sure the tape is rewound to the beginning.
2 Temporarily disconnect the cable from the recorder's
earphone or monitor jack.
3 Start the tape recorder.
4 As soon as you hear a steady tone, stop the
recorder.
5 Reconnect the cable you just disconnected. Set the
volume control to its midpoint. (If there is a tone control, turn it all
the way clockwise.)
6 Make sure your computer is in BASIC.
7 Type LOAD at the keyboard. Start the tape playing.
Press RETURN at the keyboard. If you hear a beep, wait another 15 seconds. If the
BASIC prompt character and a cursor reappear, loading was successful.
If nothing happens, or the message ERR(OR) appears,
wait another 15 seconds. If there still is no prompt or cursor, press
Ctrl-Reset, then Ctrl-B RETURN. Set the volume control a bit higher and go
back to step 1.
If the message /// SYNTAX ERR(OR) appears, do not
reset the volume control; just go back to step 1.
Once you succeed, mark the exact volume setting on the
recorder. This will save you time when you use the recorder with the
computer again. Then start the program:
Type RUN and press RETURN.
The program should display its opening picture or
message on the screen.
The resident monitor program also has a SAVE command
for recording programs on cassette. Consult the Apple IIe Reference Manual
for instructions for using this command.
The list of interface cards and peripheral devices you
can connect to the Apple IIe is long and growing. Likewise, there are
dozens of self-contained accessory cards (such as clock/calendar cards)
available. Here are just a few:
The Apple Graphics Tablet and its interface card
Apple IEEE General Purpose Interface Bus, which
enables the Apple IIe to control and communicate with as many as 14 data
gathering or data processing units for laboratory or scientific
applications
Z80 Softcard (TM), which opens the door to software
written for the popular Z80 processor and CP/M operating system
THE MILL (TM), 6809 Processor Board, which enables the
Apple IIe to use operating systems and applications written for the
high-speed 6809 processor
Clock/calendar cards for keeping track of the day and
hour
Voice synthesizers and voice recognition units
Black- and color-ink plotters, many of which you can
connect using the Apple Parallel Interface Card slots 1-7* slot 5 or 4
drive 3 cable opening 3 opening 3 drive 4 cable opening 4 opening 4
Silentype interface slots 1-7* slot 1 printer cable opening 6 or 9 opening
9 Parallel interface slots 1-7* slot 1 printer cable opening 7, 10,
opening 12 11 or 12 Super Serial interface for printer slots 1-7* slot 1
printer cable opening 7, 10, opening 12 11 or 12 for terminal slots 1-7
slot 3** terminal cable openings 7, 10, opening 7 11 or 12 for
communications slots 1-7* slot 2 cable to modem, etc. opening 7, 10
opening 10 11 or 12 Graphics Tablet slot 5 (does not work with interface
opening 5 Pascal Op Sys)
____________________________________________________________ * Do not use
slot 3 if there is a card installed in the AUX CONNECTOR slot. ** If you
connect a terminal using slot 3 under the Pascal Operating System, make
sure there is no card in the AUX CONNECTOR slot.
The following are some typical problems you may have
and what to do about them.
What happens: & What to do:
Can't turn computer on (POWER light not on; no beep).
Check power cord connections all the way from the computer back panel to
the wall outlet. Does a switch control the wall outlet? Is a fuse blown?
No cursor on screen (POWER light on; beep). Did you
turn the computer off and on in quick succession? Wait a moment between
turning the power switch off and turning it on again. Make sure the
display device is plugged into a wall outlet, correctly connected to the
computer, and turned on. Also check that the brightness and contrast
controls are adjusted so you can see a gray background on the screen. If
the computer still does not seem to work, turn off the computer,
disconnect everything except the monitor, and start the system's
self-tests (next section). Unexpected disk drive makes whirring sounds when you
start up the system. See this chapter's section "Which is the Startup
(Boot) Drive?"
Disk drive IN USE light stays on; even whirring sound.
Make sure disk drive door is closed. If necessary, press Ctrl-Reset and
wait a moment for drive to stop. Disk may be a 13-sector disk. See Chapter
4, "Disks That Don't Seem to Work."
Disk drive periodically makes rattling sound. Disk may
not be properly aligned. Open drive door, pull disk out a bit, and push it
back in. Close drive door. Disk may not be properly orientated. Make sure
the oval slot enters the drive first and that the label, if there is one,
is on top. Disk may be blank or formatted by another operating system.
Chapter 4 explains how to format a disk for use by DOS 3.3.
Disk drive makes weak whirring sounds. If you have a
card in the auxiliary slot, do not install a disk interface card in slot
3. If this is not the problem, turn off the computer and remove and
reinstall the disk controller card; check all cable connections for
tightness. Disk drive makes various sounds, then stops; nothing
on screen. Make sure display device is plugged in, turned on, and
connected to the computer; check brightness and contrast controls. If you
are using the Pascal Operating System and have installed a card in slot 3,
Pascal will route input and output through that slot. Take the card out of
slot 3.
Cannot load program from cassette recorder. Some
recorders (especially high fidelity recorders) do not work well for
loading programs into the computer. Check volume control setting, cable
connection and condition, and cassette tape (be sure the tape is rewound
and on the right side).
SYNTAX ERROR message. Many programs - especially DOS
and Applesoft and Integer BASIC--can only understand uppercase commands.
Make sure the CAPS LOCK is in its on (down) position. If you inadvertently
mix control characters with the command, the program may not recognize it.
For other possible causes, see the program's manual.
MUST BOOT FROM SLOT 6 message. The BASICS disk and the
Pascal Operating System must be started up with the startup disk in drive
1, slot 6. If necessary, turn off the computer and reinstall the disk
controller card in slot 6. Other messages on the screen. See Chapter 4, "Error
Messages" for DOS, or check the manual for the product you are using.
Modem connection doesn't work. If you are using a
Super Serial Card, read the troubleshooting chapter of the manual that
came with the card. If not, consult your electronics or computer dealer.
The Apple IIe has a built-in set of self-tests that
check whether the computer's internal circuits are functioning properly.
The tests do not check any equipment attached to the computer.
Here is how to run the Apple IIe self-tests:
While holding down the SOLID-APPLE key, press
Ctrl-Reset. Let go of Ctrl-Reset first, then the SOLID-APPLE key.
The Apple IIe immediately begins a series of
self-tests that last about 20 seconds. During that time, moving patterns
appear on the screen to let you know that the tests are in progress.
When the tests are over, the message KERNEL OK should
appear on the screen.
If a different message appears, the computer requires
servicing. Consult the Guide to Service and Support (which came with the
computer) for the address and phone number of the Apple Service Center
nearest you.
Which Is the Startup (Boot) Drive?
You can tell which disk drive the Apple IIe considers
the startup drive by noting which one's IN USE light comes on first when
you start up the computer.
To make things easy, always connect your first disk
drive via the DRIVE 1 pins of a controller card in slot 6. That way,
you'll never have to change it for a program that looks for a startup disk
there.
The Pascal Operating System and the program on the
BASICS disk (for loading programs from disks formatted by an earlier
version of DOS) are two examples of programs that require slot 6, DRIVE 1
as a startup drive.
DOS is somewhat more flexible in this requirement. DOS
starts up by using the disk drive connected to the DRIVE 1 pins of the
controller card in the highest numbered slot used. The manuals available from Apple Computer, Inc., that
pertain to the Apple IIe computer and its equipment and programs are
listed in Table 8-1.
Chapter and title/Apple manual/Manual number
Dozens of books have been written about the Apple II
family of computers. You can obtain most of these books in large
bookstores, but publishers' addresses are included so you can order the
books by mail if you wish.
The following list hardware and software designed to
work with Apple II, Apple II Plus, and Apple IIe computers:
Here is a list of personal computer magazines and
related reading currently available:
Unpacking
A Look Inside
Warning:
Installing Other Equipment
Final Checklist
GETTING ACQUAINTED
Keyboard Reference
The RETURN Key
The SPACE Bar
Keys You Must Use Precisely
Uppercase-only Keyboard
The SHIFT Key
Cursor Movement Keys
Control Characters
The ESC Key
Special Function Keys
Chapter 3
HOW IT WORKS
The Hardware
The Processor
Main Memory
System Software
Information
How The System Works Together
USING AN OPERATING SYSTEM
How DOS Begins
Three-way Conversations
?SYNTAX ERROR
*** SYNTAX ERROR
10 PRINT "THIS HELLO PROGRAM CREATED BY"
20 PRINT "(your name) ON (date)"
30 END
Error Messages
WRITE-PROTECTED
FILE LOCKED
I/O ERROR
FILE TYPE MISMATCH
Chapter 5
GETTING DOWN TO BUSINESS AND PLEASURE
Keyboard Differences
Display Differences
Memory Differences
How System Parts Work Together
Scrolling and Windows
Electronic Worksheets
Word Processors
Data Base Management
Telecommunications
Graphics
Other Applications
PROGRAMMING; THE ULTIMATE COMPUTER SKILL
Operating Systems
Language Translators
Integer BASIC--Another Dialect
Pascal--Structured Sophistication
Logo--Child's Play
ADDING MORE PIECES TO THE SYSTEM
More Disk Drives
Printers
Hand Controls
Other Computers
Cassette Recorder
Still Other Possibilities
^fi
HELP
This chapter contains information to help you:
Isolate and correct problems
Get your computer up and running
Order Apple IIe documentation
find out more about computers through books and
magazines
Troubleshooting
The Built-in Self-tests
A Brief Guide to Apple IIe Documentation
Books about the Apple II Computer
Useful Magazines
GLOSSARY
(trademarks for inside back cover:)